Networks Archives - EERA Blog

Researching education in troubled times: Reflections ahead of ECER 2025 in Belgrade

by Dr Philippe Gabriel | AECSE, NW 16 ICT in Education and Training

As we prepare to gather in Belgrade for ECER 2025, I find myself reflecting on what it means today to be a researcher in education. ECER has always been a powerful space of convergence — a moment when ideas circulate freely across borders, when educational issues are discussed in their complexity, and when we are reminded that research is, in essence, a public act.

This year’s theme, “Charting the Way Forward: Education, Research, Potentials and Perspectives”, resonates deeply in the moment in which we are living. Across Europe and beyond, we are witnessing social and political tensions that question not only the role of education, but also the very conditions under which we produce knowledge. In Serbia, where the conference is taking place, students are rising — peacefully and courageously — to demand accountability, transparency, and the respect for democratic values. Their actions, which have earned them a nomination for the 2025 Nobel Peace Prize, have been acknowledged in an open letter published by EERA in June, expressing solidarity with their commitment to democratic ideals and civic engagement. Their mobilisation has been exemplary, and it reminds us that the university can still be a place of critical hope and civic engagement.

In such a context, our research in education cannot remain indifferent. Whether we are exploring how students learn, how teachers adapt, or how systems evolve, we are also implicitly — and sometimes explicitly — questioning how education contributes to democracy, justice, and human dignity.

My own work, focused on educators’ professional development and digital literacy, has been shaped by this conviction. For instance, I have been involved in the development and implementation of the French national certification platform écri+, which supports students’ academic writing skills across universities. I also contributed to the organisation and facilitation of a hackathon held in Lyon in early July 2025. This event brought together researchers, students, and digital practitioners to explore how generative AI is reshaping scientific writing and academic literacies. These initiatives reflect a core belief: writing is not merely a technical skill, but a deeply reflexive and formative practice. It is a way of thinking, of situating oneself, and of constructing meaning in a changing world. At ECER, I will be presenting research that links writing practices to reflexivity and social engagement — drawing on collaborative work conducted in France and beyond.

I look forward to sharing this work and, more importantly, to engaging in the conversations that will undoubtedly emerge in Belgrade — with fellow researchers, students, and all those who believe that education is more than a field of study — it is a force for transformation.

Dr Philippe Gabriel

Université d’Avignon

Philippe Gabriel is Associate Professor (Maître de conférences hors classe) in Educational Sciences at Avignon Université, and researcher at LIRDEF (Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Didactique, Éducation et Formation), jointly supported by the universities of Montpellier and Montpellier Paul-Valéry. His research focuses on academic literacies, digital learning environments, AI in education, and adult education. He has coordinated several national and European projects and co-leads the EERA Network 16 on ICT in Education and Training.

ORCID: 0000-0002-9337-572X

Research Lab: https://lirdef.edu.umontpellier.fr

OpenEdition (editorial role): Éducation et Socialisation (https://journals.openedition.org/edso/)

ECER Belgrade 2025

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

08 - 09 September 2025 - Emerging Researchers' Conference
09 - 12 September 2025 - European Conference on Educational Research

Find out about fees and registration here.

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

In Belgrade, the conference theme is Charting the Way Forward: Education, Research, Potentials and Perspectives

No doubt that education has a central role in society, but what it is destined to do is contested politically as well as scientifically. Yet more debate is had concerning the question of the way in which educational research should shape the future of educational practice. The important, but sensitive role educational research occupies in that regard should be the promotion of a better understanding of the contemporary and future world of education, as is expressed in EERA’s aim.

Emerging Researchers' Conference - Belgrade 2025

The Emerging Researchers' Conference (ERC) precedes ECER and is organised by EERA's Emerging Researchers' Group. Emerging researchers are uniquely supported to discuss and debate topical and thought-provoking research projects in relation to the ECER themes, trends and current practices in educational research year after year. The high-quality academic presentations during the ERC are evidence of the significant participation and contributions of emerging researchers to the European educational research community.

By participating in the ERC, emerging researchers have the opportunity to engage with world class educational research and to learn the priorities and developments from notable regional and international researchers and academics. The ERC is purposefully organised to include special activities and workshops that provide emerging researchers varied opportunities for networking, creating global connections and knowledge exchange, sharing the latest groundbreaking insights on topics of their interest. Submissions to the ERC are handed in via the standard submission procedure.

Prepare yourself to be challenged, excited and inspired.

What European universities of applied science can learn from each other

by Jessica Langolf | DFG, NW 1 Professional Learning and Development, NW 22 Research in Higher Education, NW 23 Policy Studies and Politics of Education

New requirements for studying, teaching, and lifelong learning at European universities of applied sciences – An invitation to join the discussion

In Germany, challenges such as shrinking student numbers, shifting demands in the labour market, and the growing importance of lifelong learning are reshaping the role of academic organisations – including traditional (research) universities (Universität), universities of applied sciences (Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften), colleges of education (Pädagogische Hochschule), and cooperative state universities (Duale Hochschule). These challenges affect universities of applied sciences (UAS) in particular, and this issue goes beyond Germany, extending to other European universities of applied sciences. But what exactly does that mean? Should we pay attention, and if so, why?

As European universities of applied sciences have to adapt, the Centre for Teaching and Learning at Bremen City University of Applied Science is investigating new paths for their strategic positioning.

What are universities of applied sciences (UAS)?

The difference between the two types of higher education institutions, (research) university and UAS in Germany, may not seem logical, but has developed over time. Universities have a long tradition of scientific-theoretical orientation and basic research. UAS have their origins in engineering colleges, academies, and colleges for design, social work, or business. In other words, they emerged from educational institutions with an applied focus. Consequently, they have always been practice-oriented, conducting applied science and focusing in particular on preparing their students for a profession.

In addition, although UAS, like universities, can acquire third-party funding for research projects, they lack the human resources to carry out this research. This restriction is also due to their practical orientation, since teaching loads at UAS are much higher than at universities. As German UAS are increasingly given the right to award doctorates, the separation between the two institutions is gradually disappearing. It can be assumed that this will lead to a shift in UAS from being primarily teaching-focused to becoming more research-focused institutions.

The clock is ticking: Challenges of UAS in Europe

Germany – Competition from private UAS

UAS in Germany are caught between a rock and a hard place. They are not full universities, so their opportunities to acquire third-party funding and conduct research are limited but they face fierce competition from private UAS, which are experiencing a rapid increase in student numbers. Although the currently prevailing right to award doctorates in many German federal states brings us closer to solving the first problem, the competition with higher education institutions in the private sector remains (Autor:innengruppe, Bildungsberichterstattung, 2022, p.195).

Sweden – Demographic pressure

Sweden is also affected by a decline in student numbers. This is the result of demographic change and primarily affects smaller UAS, such as Trollhättan (Universitetskanslersämbetet, 2023, p.50). The challenge, and at the same time the goal, is to strengthen internationalisation without compromising the quality of teaching.

Netherlands– Diversity-sensitive teaching as a challenge

While demographic change has played a major role in the first two cases, the difficulty of the Netherlands UAS lies in heterogeneous student populations and a high level of diversity among learners. This requires target group-oriented teaching, which in turn demands additional resources (OECD, 2024, p.5).

The international SLW@HAW project aims to address these and other challenges and to identify the strategies of the affected UAS.

Introducing the research project SLW@HAW

The project “Strategic Positioning of Universities of Applied Sciences in the Context of Studying, Teaching and Lifelong Learning” – or SLW@HAW – investigates how UAS across three European countries are positioning themselves in the key areas mentioned above. Our research team will examine governance approaches and institutional strategies in response to demographic, social, and geopolitical change.

In order to achieve this, we chose a mixed-method approach. At the beginning of the project, a document analysis of strategic university papers (e.g., policy papers) of the respective countries will be carried out to identify key topics. In addition, expert interviews will be conducted with selected university leaders. Subsequently, we intend to perform a quantitative survey of the activities and developments within lifelong education at UAS. To validate the results, a focus group will be organised with those already involved. It allows us to gain a comprehensive understanding of the strategies employed by UAS.

Our goal is to identify innovative strategies that help UAS remain relevant and resilient. On the micro level, education leaders, researchers, and policymakers can stay informed on promising strategies while contributing to a dialogue and shaping the future of higher education and higher education research. On the meso level, European universities can connect and learn from each other.[1]

The SLW@HAW research project runs from December 2024 to November 2027. It has been funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF, Germany) and is being carried out by an international research team at Hochschule Bremen City University of Applied Sciences (HSB).

Bremen University of Applied Sciences (Germany) enrolls nearly 9,000 students in 72-degree programs across engineering, natural sciences, economics, and social sciences. About 60% of these programs have an international focus, reflected in partnerships with 360 universities in 70 countries. International students make up 20% of the student body, representing around 110 nations. One of HSB’s greatest strengths is connecting the local with the global: it combines international orientation, strong practical relevance, a commitment to lifelong learning, and deep regional roots. In particular it can be seen through dual study programs and close collaboration with local industry, which drive innovation and workforce development in Bremen.The cooperation with UAS in Netherlands and Sweden provides valuable international perspectives that enrich the project.

Hanze University of Applied Sciences (Netherlands) is one of the oldest and largest UAS in the Netherlands, with over 28,000 students, including 2,500 international ones.

University West (Sweden) is a young UAS – founded in 1990 – located in Trollhättan, Sweden, with around 15,000 students. It offers practice-oriented programmes in close cooperation with the world of work.

The first results of the SLW@HAW research project are expected to be available by the end of 2025 or the beginning of 2026. We invite you to stay tuned and join in the discussion.

The SLW@HAW research team

Professor Dr. Annika Maschwitz

The project is led by Professor Dr. Annika Maschwitz. She is Professor for Lifelong Learning at Hochschule Bremen City University of Applied Sciences, School of International Business. She is also Academic Director of the Centre for Teaching and Learning and Vice President of Academic Affairs and Internationalisation

Dr. Johanna Bruns

The project coordination is carried out by Dr. Johanna Bruns. She studied teacher education and educational science at the Universities of Munich and Göttingen and received her PhD from the University of Göttingen in 2020. Her research focuses on higher education and program development, competence research, and the digitalisation of educational processes.

Andrea Boerens M.A.

Andrea Boerens M.A. is currently completing her doctoral studies. She studied Social Sciences, Sociology, and Social Research. Her research focuses on programme development, higher education, and lifelong learning, with a special emphasis on the opening of higher education institutions. Since July 2023, she has worked at Bremen University of Applied Sciences in the Curriculum Lab. As a research associate in the SLW@HAW project, she conducts expert interviews and qualitative analyses.

Jessica Langolf M.A. (Blog author)

With a background in Educational Science, Philosophy, and Empirical Educational Research, Jessica Langolf M.A. is an early career researcher at the Centre for Teaching and Learning at Hochschule City Bremen University of Applied Sciences, focusing on higher education and organisational research. She has accumulated experience in diverse academic fields, including the writing center, qualitative research on organisational culture as part of the Excellence Cluster “Internet of Production,” science communication at the Center of Excellence Women and Science (CEWS), and worked in the Research and Transfer Department focused on (academic) female entrepreneurship.

Greta Kottwitz M.A.

Greta Kottwitz M.A. completed her Bachelor’s degree in Cultural and Gender Studies and went on to deepen her focus on sociological questions during her Master’s studies at the University of Oldenburg. She has gained experience in a variety of academic contexts, including transfer management, human-computer interaction, as well as continuing education and education management. She is currently pursuing a PhD at Bremen University of Applied Sciences, where she is researching lifelong learning in Universities of Applied Sciences.

References and Further Reading

[1] Similar to another project at Bremen University of Applied Sciences: STARS EU.

Autor:innengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung. (2022). Bildung in Deutschland 2022: Ein indikatorengestützter Bericht mit einer Analyse zum Bildungspersonal. wbv Publikation.

OECD. (2024). Education at a glance 2024: Country note – Netherlands. OECD Publishing. Retrieved May 15, 2025, from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/education-at-a-glance-2024-country-notesfab77ef0-en/netherlandsf17c5d6a-en.html

Universitetskanslersämbetet. (2023). An Overview of Swedish Higher Education and Research 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2025 from https://www.uka.se/download/18.2215701c18c6242f0141e50f/1702630438362/UK%C3%84_An%20overview-engelska%20%C3%A5rsrapporten_webb_enkelsidor.pdf

How an ERC bursary opened the door to a transformative research experience

by Laura Kildė | Emerging Researchers' Group, NW 1 Professional Learning and Development

When I received the email confirming that I had been awarded an Emerging Researchers’ Conference (ERC) bursary, I became excited and, at the same time, slightly nervous. As a first-year PhD student in Educational Sciences, I was just beginning to look for my footing in the world of academic research. Indeed, the bursary provided me with the opportunity to attend the Emerging Researcher’s Conference (ERC) and the European Conference on Educational Research (ECER) in August 2024 in Nicosia, Cyprus—an experience that would have been out of reach without this support.

Why this experience mattered

Presenting at a major international conference so early in my PhD journey was both empowering and challenging. I was working intensively on preparing a systematic literature review in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing research in my field. As a result, I delivered my presentation “The Integration of Generative AI in Foreign Language Teacher Education: A Systematic Literature Review” during one of the Emerging Researchers’ sessions. This was my first time presenting my research in such a large and diverse setting. Receiving an abundance of questions made me reflect more deeply on the work I had done and inspired me to make meaningful improvements accordingly.

At the same time, what stood out most was not just the opportunity to speak—but to listen as well. The conference brought together researchers, educators, and professionals from all over Europe and beyond. I had the opportunity to choose freely from a wide range of sessions, where each offered unique insights into different areas of educational research. This diversity introduced me not only to new and unique ideas, but also to different contexts.

Growth beyond the conference room

Moreover, I was able to fully immerse myself in the event. I met fellow PhD students, early-career researchers, and experienced academics. We spoke about everything from research methodology to the emotional highs and lows of academic life.

These conversations—whether in formal sessions or over coffee—helped me reflect on my own research. Some discussions sparked new professional and personal interests, while others helped me realise what I did not want to pursue in my work. This growing sense of clarity was just as valuable as discovering new directions. I left Cyprus with a head full of questions, fresh ideas, and a renewed sense of purpose. I realised that some of the most important learning happens in the spaces between presentations: in informal chats, shared doubts, and collective curiosity.

Reimagining my research focus

Back in Lithuania, I continued the conversations I had started at the conference—with my PhD supervisor, university professors, and peers. One key realisation came into focus: I had spent significant time in Rwanda and Kenya, gaining both personal and professional experience, yet this perspective was not reflected in my research.

Listening to presentations and discussions under the ECER 2024 theme “Education in an Age of Uncertainty: Memory and Hope for the Future” made me reflect on how deeply education is shaped by historical, social, and geopolitical contexts. The theme encouraged me not only to acknowledge the complexities and uncertainties of the present but also to draw from past experiences to imagine more hopeful futures. In this light, I recognised the importance of including my African experience—not just as background, but as a meaningful lens through which to explore and reframe my research. It was a powerful reminder that educational research must remain open to multiple narratives, histories, and hopes – especially in a globalised and interconnected world.

With support from my academic community, I revised my original doctoral topic “Educational–Technology Enhanced Self-Directed Learning in Foreign Language Teacher Education”, which initially focused on how digital tools can enhance self-directed learning within the context of foreign language teacher training. However, with support from my academic community, I reshaped the topic to incorporate a broader and more critical perspective. The revised focus—Self-Directed Learning of Future Lithuanian and Kenyan Foreign Language Teachers in the AI Era—still centers on digital technologies but, at the same time, expands to include a comparative, global dimension. This new direction combines my interest in digital technologies with a deeper and a more global understanding of teacher education.

Indeed, the experience at ERC and ECER, including all the variety of presentations, networking, and critical feedback encouraged me to move beyond a Eurocentric perspective and toward a more comparative, interdisciplinary, and globally relevant dissertation topic.

The real impact of the bursary

The ERC bursary made all of this possible. It was not just some financial support—it was a vote of confidence. It allowed me to:

Present and test my ideas in a professional setting
Connect with researchers from around the world
Discover how international education challenges intersect with my own
Gain the courage to rethink and refine my research direction

Why this matters to others

Whether you are a fellow researcher, an educator, or someone interested in how education is changing, these kinds of international experiences are incredibly valuable. They help us build bridges between ideas, cultures, and communities. They show us that education is never one-size-fits-all, and that our work benefits from being shaped by many voices.

Final thoughts

Research can often feel like a solitary path, especially in the early stages. But my experience in Cyprus reminded me that academic work is a shared journey. With the support of initiatives like the ERC bursary, young researchers like me get the chance to become a part of something bigger—to contribute, to learn, and to even be transformed in the process.

Key Messages

Receiving an ERC bursary enabled me to attend and present at ERC/ ECER 2024 in Nicosia, Cyprus—an eye-opening international research experience early in my PhD journey.
Presenting my first systematic literature review on AI in language teacher education sparked valuable feedback and reflection.
Conversations with global researchers reshaped my research focus to include my African experiences and explore self-directed learning in Lithuania and Kenya.
The ERC bursary was more than financial support—it was a transformative boost in confidence, connection, and clarity.

Laura Kildė

PhD candidate, Vilnius University

Laura Kildė is a university lecturer, book author, and founder of foreign language schools. Her research interests include language education, educational technologies with a focus on generative AI, teacher training, self-directed learning, and postcolonial studies. She has worked internationally in France, Spain, Rwanda, Kenya, the UK, and the USA across various roles in education and research.

ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laura–Kilde?ev=hdr_xprf

LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/laura-kildė-14826277/

ECER Belgrade 2025

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

08 – 09 September 2025 – Emerging Researchers’ Conference
09 – 12 September 2025 – European Conference on Educational Research

Find out about fees and registration here.

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

In Belgrade, the conference theme is Charting the Way Forward: Education, Research, Potentials and Perspectives

No doubt that education has a central role in society, but what it is destined to do is contested politically as well as scientifically. Yet more debate is had concerning the question of the way in which educational research should shape the future of educational practice. The important, but sensitive role educational research occupies in that regard should be the promotion of a better understanding of the contemporary and future world of education, as is expressed in EERA’s aim.

Emerging Researchers’ Conference – Belgrade 2025

The Emerging Researchers’ Conference (ERC) precedes ECER and is organised by EERA’s Emerging Researchers’ Group. Emerging researchers are uniquely supported to discuss and debate topical and thought-provoking research projects in relation to the ECER themes, trends and current practices in educational research year after year. The high-quality academic presentations during the ERC are evidence of the significant participation and contributions of emerging researchers to the European educational research community.

By participating in the ERC, emerging researchers have the opportunity to engage with world class educational research and to learn the priorities and developments from notable regional and international researchers and academics. The ERC is purposefully organised to include special activities and workshops that provide emerging researchers varied opportunities for networking, creating global connections and knowledge exchange, sharing the latest groundbreaking insights on topics of their interest. Submissions to the ERC are handed in via the standard submission procedure.

Prepare yourself to be challenged, excited and inspired.

ECER Belgrade 2025

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

08 - 09 September 2025 - Emerging Researchers' Conference
09 - 12 September 2025 - European Conference on Educational Research

Find out about fees and registration here.

Since the first ECER in 1992, the conference has grown into one of the largest annual educational research conferences in Europe. In 2025, the EERA family heads to Serbia for ECER and ERC.

In Belgrade, the conference theme is Charting the Way Forward: Education, Research, Potentials and Perspectives

No doubt that education has a central role in society, but what it is destined to do is contested politically as well as scientifically. Yet more debate is had concerning the question of the way in which educational research should shape the future of educational practice. The important, but sensitive role educational research occupies in that regard should be the promotion of a better understanding of the contemporary and future world of education, as is expressed in EERA’s aim.

How can teachers make a difference in climate change education?

by Hasret Baş, İlknur Özbebek, Rahime Çobanoğlu | NW 30 Environmental and Sustainability Education Research, ESER

Student: Teacher, I want to play with snowballs, but it’s not snowing. My Mom said that it used to snow a lot at this time of year.

Teacher: Your Mom is right. It’s December! We’re used to snow in winter, but we haven’t had any this year.

Student: Why isn’t it snowing now? What’s happening to the seasons?

Teacher: What you’re noticing is climate change. We need to explore it to protect our planet.

The above dialogue illustrates that climate change is no longer a distant concern; it has become a reality we experience firsthand. From unseasonably warm days to extreme weather events, we are becoming more aware of the changes happening around us. Research has confirmed that long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns are occurring. The United Nations (2023) reports that the Earth’s average surface temperature is now about 1.2°C warmer than it was before the industrial revolution. It is now well recognized that human activities that increase greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere contribute to climate change (World Meteorological Organization, 2024). The human impact on climate change highlights the importance of education as a strategic tool for promoting environmentally responsible behaviors to help mitigate its effects.

Teachers undoubtedly play a key role in climate change education. While many teachers may think that only science or geography educators can tackle climate change, research reveals that it’s a cross-disciplinary topic that can be woven into every subject (Tibola da Rocha et al., 2020). But how can teachers effectively respond to climate change and create a meaningful impact? In this blog post, we outline the key principles of effective climate change education.

The importance of teacher education programs

Illustrated infographic titled “How can teachers make a difference in climate change education?” with a central question surrounded by ten action points. These include:

Develop a green curriculum
Focus on mitigation and adaptation
Address emotions, values, knowledge, thinking, and skills
Tackle misconceptions
Invest in teacher education and professional development
Empower student action
Integrate across subjects
Use technology
Engage all stakeholders
Use active, experiential, reflective learning
The design features icons representing each point and is decorated with plants, trees, and a sun to evoke nature and sustainability.

To address climate change effectively, teachers need to embrace evidence-based strategies that target two crucial areas: mitigation and adaptation (Anderson, 2012). To effectively guide students in these areas, however, teachers themselves must first be strongly aware of climate change – the causes, the impacts, and the strategies for both mitigation and adaptation. Given that many teachers struggle with inadequate preparation in both knowledge and practical approaches for engaging their students in addressing the climate crisis (Beach, 2023), teacher education programs and professional development initiatives become essential in bridging this gap. These programs can serve as powerful catalysts, providing educators with the insights, strategies, and confidence they need to tackle climate change. learning.

Greening the curriculum

While teacher education is crucial, so is the effort to green the curriculum. A well-designed curriculum empowers teachers and strengthens their impact on students. According to UNESCO (2024), effective climate change education requires a green curriculum that covers diverse aspects of climate change, integrates relevant local knowledge, and emphasizes learner-centered, experiential, and reflective learning approaches. Equally important is how teachers bring the curriculum to life in the classroom. Teachers who are effectively prepared for climate change education go beyond simply delivering facts; they help students understand climate challenges deeply, reflect on their consequences, and explore ways to contribute to solutions (Stevenson, Nicholls, & Whitehouse, 2017).

Using the bicycle metaphor as a framework to address climate change education

Bicycle model on climate change education: presenting and evaluating a model (Cantell, et al)

The bicycle metaphor of Cantell et al. (2020) provides a valuable framework for teachers in shaping their approach to climate change education.

Wheels: the foundational knowledge and thinking skills necessary to address climate issues.

Pedals: highlight the action-oriented aspect of climate change education, where knowledge is transformed into meaningful change.

Lamp: underscores the importance of emotions and hope for climate change education, reminding teachers to nurture emotional awareness and resilience in their students.

Frame: symbolizes the core values that shape how students understand and engage with climate challenges.

This holistic approach encourages teachers to integrate knowledge, action, emotions, and values into their lessons.

As Bentz (2020) emphasized, it is vital that teachers discover effective ways to engage young people with a topic that often feels abstract, distant, and overwhelmingly complex, while also addressing the feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and anxiety it can evoke. Rousell and Cutter-Mackenzie-Knowles (2020) indicated that didactic approaches to climate change education have proven largely ineffective in influencing students’ attitudes and behaviors. Thus, shifting away from traditional lecture-based teaching toward more interactive and creative methods is essential for meaningful climate change education in schools. Research by Monroe and colleagues (2019) offers valuable insights into strategies that can make climate change education truly impactful. At the heart of these strategies is promoting student reflection and active engagement to understand the causes and consequences of climate change, while also empowering them to explore adaptation and mitigation strategies, and take necessary actions.

4 actionable approaches teachers can use to address climate change education

Foster meaningful discussions: Create opportunities for students to discuss climate-related issues openly, share their perspectives, and learn from one another.
Connect students with scientists: Invite experts into your classroom to help students learn about climate science firsthand and encourage them to ask questions to deepen their understanding.
Tackle misconceptions: Address common misunderstandings about climate change and guide students toward evidence-based knowledge.
Support project-based learning: Encourage students to work on projects that connect classroom learning to real-world issues, whether through school initiatives or community-based efforts.

As part of these approaches, teachers can take advantage of integrating technology into learning. Research shows that technology-enhanced games and simulations can significantly impact awareness about climate change (Creutzig & Kapmeier, 2020). For instance, NASA (2025) has created a website called ClimateKids, which includes games, activities, and videos, making it a valuable resource for teachers.

The importance of collective climate action with and beyond the school community

Finally, it is important to highlight that while teachers’ approach to climate change education matters, their impact can be significantly amplified when other stakeholders such as principals, school staff at all levels, families, and community members are actively involved in the process. This whole-institution approach reinforces the idea of collective climate action and fosters a unified effort toward meaningful change (Hargis et al., 2021). Teachers, aware of the significance of collective action, can take the lead in building partnerships, encouraging collaboration, and creating opportunities for these stakeholders to contribute to climate change education. Drawing on the leadership and guidance inherent in their profession, teachers can empower students to become informed, responsible, and active individuals committed to building a sustainable future.

Key Messages

Climate change is an urgent and undeniable reality, with human activities driving rising temperatures and environmental threats.
Teachers are in a strategic position to inspire the behaviors needed to mitigate its impacts and promote a more sustainable future.
Climate change education should extend beyond simply presenting facts. Teachers must integrate knowledge, critical thinking, action, emotions, and values to foster meaningful engagement and empower students to actively contribute to climate change solutions.
Teachers need to find effective ways to teach climate change, adopting approaches that engage students in meaningful, interactive, and creative ways, rather than relying on traditional lecture-based methods.
A whole-institution approach fosters collective climate action, with teachers playing a key role in building partnerships and encouraging collaboration among all stakeholders, including principals, students, families, and community members.

References and further reading

Anderson, A. (2012). Climate change education for mitigation and adaptation. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 6(2), 191-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/09734082124751

Beach, R. (2023). Addressing the challenges of preparing teachers to teach about the climate crisis. The Teacher Educator, 58(4), 507-522. https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730.2023.2175401

Bentz, J. (2020). Learning about climate change in, with and through art. Climatic Change,162(3), 1595-1612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02804-4

Cantell, H., Tolppanen, S., Aarnio-Linnanvuori, E., & Lehtonen, A. (2019). Bicycle model on climate change education: Presenting and evaluating a model. Environmental Education Research, 25(5), 717-731. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2019.1570487

Creutzig, F., & Kapmeier, F. (2020). Engage, don’t preach: Active learning triggers climate action. Energy Research & Social Science, 70 (101779), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101779

Hargis, K., McKenzie, M., & Levert-Chiasson, I. (2021). A whole institution approach to climate change education: Preparing schools to be climate proactive. In R. Iyengar and C. T. Kwauk (Eds), Curriculum and learning for climate action: Toward an SDG 4.7 roadmap for systems change (pp. 43-66). Boston: BRILL. https://doi. org/10.1163/9789004471818

Monroe, M. C., Plate, R. R., Oxarart, A., Bowers, A., & Chaves, W. A. (2019). Identifying effective climate change education strategies: A systematic review of the research. Environmental Education Research, 25(6), 791-812. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1360842

NASA. (2025). ClimateKids. https://climatekids.nasa.gov/climate-change/.

Rousell, D., & Cutter-Mackenzie-Knowles, A. (2020). A systematic review of climate change education: Giving children and young people a ‘voice’and a ‘hand’in redressing climate change. Children’s Geographies, 18(2), 191-208. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2019.1614532

Stevenson, R. B., Nicholls, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2017). What is climate change education? Curriculum Perspectives, 37, 67-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41297-017-0015-9

Tibola da Rocha, V., Brandli, L. L., & Kalil, R. M. L. (2020). Climate change education in school: knowledge, behavior and attitude. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 21(4), 649-670. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-11-2019-0341

United Nations. (2023). What Is climate change? https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change

UNESCO. (2024). Greening curriculum guidance: Teaching and learning for climate action. https://doi.org/10.54675/AOOZ1758

World Meteorological Organization (2024). State of the climate 2024: Update for COP29.https://library.wmo.int/records/item/69075-state-of-the-climate-2024

Hasret Baş

Student, Sinop University, Türkiye

Hasret Baş is a master’s student in the field of Curriculum and Instruction at Sı̇nop University, Türkiye. Her research interests include climate change education and curriculum studies. She is currently writing a thesis on climate change education and also works as a teacher in a public school.

İlknur Özbebek

Student, Hacettepe University, Türkiye

İlknur Özbebek is a doctoral student in Curriculum and Instruction at Hacettepe University, Türkiye. Her research interests include culture, ethnomathematics, curriculum and instruction. She is currently working as a research assistant at Sinop University.

Dr. Rahime Çobanoğlu

Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, Sinop University, Türkiye

Rahime Çobanoğlu is an Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at Sinop University, Türkiye. Her research interests focus on teacher practices, curriculum implementation, and teacher beliefs. She is currently supervising a thesis on climate change education.

Rethinking citizenship: Global challenges and the role of education

by Dr Aikerim Bektemirova | NW 23 Policy Studies and Politics of Education, NW 7 Social Justice and Intercultural Education

The paradox of universal rights and freedoms being exclusively reserved for members of a nation-state through national citizenship has led me to explore the newly emerging ideas of global citizenship and global citizenship education (GCED). While global forms of citizenship aim to transcend the particularism of national rights, the role of education in fostering these ideals is central—especially in Europe, where regional frameworks like the European Union (EU) already provide an intermediary model between national and global citizenship. Yet, these frameworks are constrained by institutional and political realities, as citizenship remains fundamentally rooted in national legal systems. This raises critical questions about the feasibility of transnational citizenship and the extent to which educational initiatives can genuinely reshape these structures.

The interplay between global and European citizenship

Few would dispute that all individuals, regardless of nationality, are entitled to fundamental rights such as life, liberty, and education (United Nations, 1948). Yet, the institutionalisation of these rights predominantly occurs at the national level (Oman, 2009, p. 280-281), creating tensions between the universality of rights and the particularism of national citizenship (Fudge, 2004, p. 32). Global citizenship is often framed as a way to overcome these limitations, yet its feasibility remains contested.

In Europe, however, the EU provides a unique context where, although citizenship is confined to a single nation-state, rights and freedoms extend across member states (The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2000). The EU’s concept of citizenship, established under the Maastricht Treaty (1992), includes rights such as free movement, the ability to work and reside in any member state, and access to supranational legal protections. While this model showcases the potential of regional cooperation, its implementation remains uneven, with significant disparities in how member states apply and enforce these rights. Persistent challenges include restrictions on labor mobility, unequal access to social welfare systems, and the treatment of migrants and asylum seekers, highlighting the complexities of balancing national sovereignty with transnational governance.

Education as a catalyst for citizenship beyond borders

Education plays a pivotal role in shaping how individuals understand and enact citizenship. As part of broader efforts to reimagine civic education, UNESCO has promoted Global Citizenship Education (GCED) to foster a sense of interconnectedness and ethical responsibility in a globalised world. Schools are increasingly seen not just as places for academic instruction, but as spaces where students learn to navigate complex global realities and develop ethical, inclusive perspectives (UNESCO, 2014).

Officially launched by the UN in 2012, GCED is a ‘framing paradigm’ that calls for ‘multifaceted,’ ‘transformative,’ and ‘lifelong’ civic learning (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). Enshrined in Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Target 4.7, it combines ‘formal and informal approaches, curricular and extracurricular interventions, and conventional and unconventional pathways to participation’ (UNESCO, 2015) with the aim of developing core competencies in learners, including:

a) Deep knowledge of global issues and universal values like justice, equality, and dignity

b) Cognitive skills for critical, systemic, and multi-perspective thinking

c) Non-cognitive skills such as empathy, conflict resolution, and cross-cultural communication

d) Behavioural capacities to act collaboratively and responsibly for the collective good (UNESCO, 2013).

However, these aspirations remain largely theoretical, as the challenge lies in bridging this vision with concrete implementation strategies that can be adapted to diverse educational systems.

Challenges and prospects in global citizenship education

Despite its potential, GCED faces notable conceptual and practical challenges. One concern is UNESCO’s “thin” conceptualisation of global citizenship, which does not fully address the role of the nation-state, the legal basis of citizenship rights, or the responsibilities that come with them. This ambiguity limits its effectiveness as a policy framework. A related challenge is its implementation. While UNESCO supports national efforts through curriculum development and learning materials, its influence remains largely advisory. Member states submit progress reports to UNESCO’s Executive Board every four years, yet the ‘Recommendation on Education for Peace and Human Rights, International Understanding, Cooperation, Fundamental Freedoms, Global Citizenship, and Sustainable Development’ (2023) remains a non-binding guidance document rather than a legally binding framework. This weakens its capacity to ensure meaningful integration across diverse national contexts.

Additionally, UNESCO’s discourse has increasingly emphasised preparing education systems for so-called ‘future’ challenges rather than addressing the structural barriers that already hinder effective responses to global issues (Mochizuki & Vickers, 2024). This shift also reflects a broader trend toward the depoliticisation of education policy discussions. As a result, UNESCO’s global citizenship agenda appears to prioritise seemingly apolitical, simplistic solutions to global challenges—an approach that not only restricts political debate but also diverts attention from socio-economic injustices and weakens civic agency (Bryan, 2022). This raises concerns about whether GCED can truly empower learners to challenge dominant global structures rather than simply adapt to them.

At the same time, global challenges such as climate change, migration, and social inequality require collective solutions, such as global citizenship education. While GCED alone cannot resolve these issues, it offers a valuable framework for fostering civic engagement and ethical responsibility across borders. However, without clearer institutional backing and mechanisms for accountability, its impact remains uneven. A crucial challenge lies in moving beyond broad rhetoric to establish sustainable pathways for integrating GCED into national education systems in ways that complement existing structures.

Towards an integrated model of citizenship education

In Europe, citizenship education already covers the EU’s institutions, functions, integration processes, and core values, fostering both awareness and a sense of belonging to the EU community (Bacian & Huemer, 2023). Expanding this framework to incorporate global citizenship could help learners develop the skills and knowledge needed to engage with increasingly interconnected social, economic, and environmental challenges. The EU itself serves as a tangible model of transnational belonging, demonstrating how rights and responsibilities can extend beyond national borders. However, meaningful transnational citizenship depends on strong institutional frameworks, legal mechanisms, and sustained political cooperation – elements that, while central to the EU model, remain unevenly developed and contested within the Union itself.

While the EU has institutionalised transnational citizenship on a regional scale, its limitations highlight the challenges of implementing GCED on a global level, such as discrepancies in the enforcement of rights, restrictions on labor mobility, and the treatment of migrants – issues that reveal the difficulty of extending citizenship beyond the nation-state.

Despite these challenges, education remains one of the most promising tools for fostering mutual understanding and preparing individuals to engage with global issues in meaningful ways. To maximise its impact, greater institutional collaboration is needed to ensure that education policies are responsive to the realities of citizenship in a globalised world. GCED has the potential to bridge national and transnational civic engagement, but this requires translating its principles into concrete policies and practices that equip learners with the tools to navigate both local and global challenges effectively. By critically assessing both the opportunities and constraints of transnational citizenship, we can move beyond theoretical discussions and work toward a more inclusive and actionable model of civic education.

Key Messages

There is a tension between the absolute universalism of fundamental rights and the enduring particularism of their institutionalisation through national citizenship.
With state institutions serving as the primary mechanisms for exercising rights and freedoms, human rights are intrinsically linked to national citizenship.
Global Citizenship Education (GCE), envisioned as a means to foster universal values, is proposed as a potential solution to this tension.
GCE encourages us to reimagine education as a lifelong process that nurtures a sense of belonging not only to a nation but also to a global community.

Dr. Aikerim Bektemirova

Aikerim Bektemirova recently completed her PhD in Education at the University of Cambridge. Her primary research interests lie at the intersection of education and political sociology. Prior to her PhD, Aikerim earned an MPhil in Education, Globalisation, and International Development, also from the University of Cambridge. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science and International Relations from Nazarbayev University in Astana, Kazakhstan.

References and Further Reading

Appiah, K. (2007). Global Citizenship. Fordham L. Review, 75(5), 2375. Available at: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol75/iss5/3/

Bacian, I. &Huemer, M. (2023). Citizenship education in national curricula. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2023)747459

Bosniak, L. (2000). Citizenship Denationalized. SSRN Electronic Journal, 7, 447. Available at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol7/iss2/2/

Bryan, A. (2022). From ‘the conscience of humanity’ to the conscious human brain: UNESCO’s embrace of social-emotional learning as a flag of convenience. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 54(5), 770–784. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2022.2129956

European Parliament. (2000). The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf

European Parliament. (1992). Treaty on European Union (TEU) / Maastricht Treaty. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/maastricht-treaty

Frey, B. (2001). Flexible Citizenship for a Global Society. SSRN Electronic Journal.Available at: https://www.bsfrey.ch/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/flexible-citizenship-for-a-global-society.pdf

Fudge, J. (2014). Making claims for migrant workers: human rights and citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 18(1), 29-45. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13621025.2014.865894

Gholami, R. (2016). The art of self-making: identity and citizenship education in late-modernity. British Journal Of Sociology Of Education, 38(6), 798-811. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2016.1182006

Hansen, R. (2014). Citizenship and Integration in Europe. In Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States (1st ed., pp. 87-109). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305246077_Citizenship_and_Integration_in_Europe

Koh, H. H. (1999). How Is International Human Rights Law Enforced? Indiana Law Journal, 74(4), 9th ser., 1397-1417. Available at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2279&context=ilj

Nash, K. (2009). Between Citizenship and Human Rights. Sociology, 43(6), 1067-1083. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038509345702

Mochizuki, Y., & Vickers, E. (2024). Still ‘the conscience of humanity’? UNESCO’s vision of education for peace, sustainable development and global citizenship. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 54(5), 721–730. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2024.2371259

Oman, N. (2010). Hannah Arendt’s “Right to Have Rights”: A Philosophical Context for Human Security. Journal of Human Rights, 9(3), 279-302. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3394297

UNESCO. (2013). Outcome document of the Technical Consultation on Global Citizenship Education: Global Citizenship Education – An Emerging Perspective. Available at:https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000224115

UNESCO. (2014). Global Citizenship Education. Preparing learners for the challenges of the twenty-first century.Paris: UNESCO. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000227729

UNESCO. (2015). Global Citizenship Education. Topics and Learning Objectives. Paris: UNESCO. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232993

UNESCO. (2023). Recommendation on Education for Peace and Human Rights, International Understanding, Cooperation, Fundamental Freedoms, Global Citizenship and Sustainable Development. Paris: UNESCO. Available at :https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/recommendation-education-peace-and-human-rights-international-understanding-cooperation-fundamental

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Available at:https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights

A collective becoming of emerging environmental and sustainability education researchers

by Williams, Römer, Skilton, Kocel, Heikkilä, Iakovidou | NW 30 Environmental and Sustainability Education Research, ESER

It is not surprising that a group of individuals interested in Environmental and Sustainability Education (ESE) would share values and common interests. Yet, it would perhaps be surprising if a meeting of such individuals resulted in the creation of an almost ‘ready-made’ community. And that this community – of people who work in very different fields, with diverse backgrounds and life experiences – would willingly forgo the competitive nature of performative academic events, but rather adopt an openness that disarmed from the outset.

“One of the most important experiences on the PhD journey.”

This may seem like a hyperbolic description of the four days of Transformative Learning in Sustainability: a pluriversal approach Seasonal School in Karlsruhe, funded by EERA’s NW 30 and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), but the event enabled interactions that have influenced and informed our lives as Early Career Researchers (ECRs).

To express and perhaps explain the experience, we offer five aspects of researcher identity emergent at the Seasonal School: place and becoming, embodied, connected, brave, and hopeful. We want to share our collective experience to show the importance of participating in in-person Seasonal Schools as ECRs to network, find/create community and engage in exchange through the lens of transformative learning.

We have written collectively and used ‘we’ in most instances. Our individual voices have also been included as ‘I’. The use of ‘we’ refers to the six co-authors – we appreciate the experiences of other participants and mentors may differ.

Image Description: A picture of something symbolising our research from a walk in the Schlossgarten as we got to know the surroundings. This one symbolises emotions one may feel when encountering something new, such as disgust, fear, hope, and joy. Credit: Emma Heikkilä.

Place and becoming

“In less than a week, I felt more at home in Karlsruhe than I do in the town where I was born and raised.”

The fan-shaped city of Karlsruhe was central to our experience. With the embodied experience of journeying to Germany’s early summer, one could not but smile. The trees were already green, people were spending time in the park, and one could easily sit in a Biergarten. There was something homely about Karlsruhe, a peaceful atmosphere – no wonder the name Karlsruhe translates from German to “Karl’s peace”.

Most of us were surprised by how much time we spent outside the formal settings of KIT, having experienced conferences where connection with the surroundings is optional. The first activity was to silently walk in the Schlossgarten. Later, we felt warmly welcomed at Kulturküche – an experimental public space for art and culture- for our first dinner. Another evening, we were led on a beautifully curated ‘sustainable city walking tour’, where we encountered a permanent high-top circus tent, community gardens, and eastern Karlsruhe, which turned our attention to the residents’ lives.

Raised planting beds in a communal garden filled with vegetables and herbs

Image Description: Karlsruhe Community Gardens, May 2024. Credit: Eleftheria Iakovidou

Embodied

“I cannot describe the affective relation to Karlsruhe in other words than “I fell in love with Karlsruhe.”

Often, we find ourselves as minds in front of a computer, but in Karlsruhe, we were learning, participating, and researching in an embodied way. The long, immersive days surrounded us with like-minded individuals as we collectively sought deeper understandings of ESE research and practice.

Beginning with a programme of workshops and talks, including a world café event, we had opportunities to connect, deepened by sharing our vegetarian meals. The programme kept us moving; we took our whole selves outside, made maps, walked, chatted, and wrote. We had moved into a liminal space, set apart from our usual routine and places and were invited into this new space, to think with new objects, people, and ideas.

More uncomfortable learning spaces were those that challenged us, invited us to consider other methodological perspectives, and learn from contextual circumstances in different countries. They also showed us the value of coming together as a diverse group of ECRs. Through conversations with others, with clay, and with ourselves in our diaries, we could sit with feelings of discomfort – physical, emotional and mental – that were raised during the Seasonal School. Slowly, the discomfort faded.

A group of people sit in a park, surrounded by trees

Image Description: Participants writing in their diaries while sitting in Schlossgarten, close to KIT. Credit: Julia Skilton.

Connected

“I will remember Karlsruhe as a defining aspect of my PhD – deepening my thinking, feeling and connections.”

During those four days, we experienced a dual connection between ourselves and with the environment. What started with an outdoor getting-to-know-you activity slowly developed into a sense of community. The variety of structured and unstructured activities created spaces for us to connect over shared use of theoretical frameworks, links between our projects, mutual personal interests and shared ideas. Experiential learning activities in diverse settings, such as the university park, allowed us to connect with the environment. In conversations with clay, we realised the ways we affected the clay and how it affected us; learning to listen to its voice, experiment, and explore creative avenues.

This allowed us to connect with the more-than-human world through embodied experiences, and engage in collective discussions and collaboration. The notion of a network driven by more than impact and outcomes was important to our discussions throughout the four days and in our plans to collaborate in the future. Karlsruhe has been a significant part of our journey of connecting with others and the environment, and ‘becoming’ sustainable education researchers.

Image Description: Selected clay artefacts from our “Conversations with Clay” Session. Credit: Sarah Strachan.

Brave

“Sustainability isn’t all beauty and loveliness – it means facing up to challenging uncomfortable situations and working forward with it.”

As ECRs, there is pressure to present our work. Often before we are comfortable with it ourselves, we share our work with others who usually want to critique (or criticise) our ideas and methods. Despite our shared motivation to build research careers, during the Seasonal School, there was a lack of competition that is often present at similar events. In presenting our research through a poster and small group discussion, we shared concerns and ideas about things that excited us, which we felt would inform each other’s work.

Through activities where no one was an expert, we gained confidence in the support available. In accepting our vulnerability, we were made brave. Our differences enabled us to stand apart together and share without fear. Together, we embraced being in a liminal space on our shared PhD journeys, a place where we set aside our egos without even realising it.

Image Description: Statue of ‘Der Denker’ made by Karl-Heinz Krause in Schlossgarten. Credit: Emma Heikkilä.

Hopeful

What initially connected us is our ESE research, which is entangled with the horrors of climate change, environmental disasters, and gross exploitation. Simultaneously, we are learning to navigate complex and unsustainable structures of academia (continuous competition for resources, high pressure on publishing, and efficiency requirements). Finding ourselves in the midst of working with emotionally challenging topics, we may feel alone and exhausted under the burden of the “publish or perish” mentality. We shared our thoughts on this in a dedicated fishbowl discussion.

We addressed hope and hopelessness, and many agreed that we cannot accept hopelessness. However, it often seems as if the work is left to the individual to not give up. Where do we find hope? Can we research if we are hopeless? Maybe hope should not be seen as a stable, binary matter. Hopelessness may also elucidate valuable insights of what to prioritise, and how to (re)gain hope.

Hope can be found in connections to others – finding a sense of belonging, being with each other and reaching the person behind the professional. Sharing our messy ideas, half-baked thoughts, and insecurities requires courage and vulnerability, but in the community formed, this became possible.

We met like-minded colleagues, and those with different ideas from our own, which deepened our perspectives. We were able to think and be active in embodied, emotional and spiritual ways. This reminds us that we are vulnerable embodied beings, and helps us to embrace that. We realised that we are already part of the ESER community of practice, and that this opens up opportunities for collaboration on future ESE research and beyond.

A group of people sitting at a restaurant table

Image Description: Group of participants sitting at a long table having dinner in a former slaughterhouse now restaurant ‘Fettschmelze’. Credit: Olivia Wohlfart.

Concluding thoughts

To build on this young ESE PhD network formed in four days, we created an online group to keep in touch. The idea of writing and sharing our collective experiences emerged. Putting our thoughts into words – together – has not only helped make our reflections more concrete but has also been a way for us to nurture the connections formed in Karlsruhe. Education is so much more than measurable, tangible ‘outputs’. We didn’t leave the Seasonal School having ticked the boxes of certain learning outcomes. Rather, the process became part of us, and we bring it with us on our evolving paths. We reflect whether the experience will continue to influence us as researchers, educators, and citizens, and if so – how?

The Seasonal School shaped our identity as researchers through place-based, embodied and collective experiences. Being part of a supportive ECR community helped us realise that through collaboration, we can better negotiate the unknown future, whether this relates to our PhD journeys, or sustainability issues generally.

We hope that our reflections inspire future ECRs to experience Seasonal Schools and highlight the enormous value in organising in-person events which bring ECRs from diverse countries, disciplines and backgrounds together.

Key Messages

Sharing our ECR experience, we highlight the value of participating in in-person opportunities to find community and engage in exchange.
Embodied experiences relating with people and place are fundamental to Environmental and Sustainability Education.
Our reflections exemplify the possibility of transformative learning experiences in academia.
Environmental and Sustainability Education is more than measurable outcomes.

Authors

Penelope Williams, University of Bristol, UK https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0511-400X

Julia Römer, Glasgow School of Art, UK https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5986-8478

Julia Skilton, University of Edinburgh, UK https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0292-244X

Caroline Kocel, Anglia Ruskin University, UK https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0740-7783

Emma Heikkilä, University of Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4422-575X

Eleftheria Iakovidou, University of Gloucestershire, UK https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1699-6123

Infobox

Overview: Seasonal School 2024

KIT – Institut für Schulpädagogik und Didaktik (ISD) Kooperationen – International – Seasonal School 2024 – Programme

NW 30. Environmental and Sustainability Education Research, ESER – Seasonal School 2024 | EERA

Reflections on Organizing a Seasonal School: A Postdoc’s Journey by Olivia Wohlfart.

Mentors:
Dr Olivia Wohlfart, Dr Elsa Lee, Dr Jonas Lysgaard, Prof Alan Reid, Sarah Strachan

Children’s rights and the importance of research into school disciplinary practices

by Shweta Hegde | NW 25 Research on Children's Rights in Education

Childhood experiences, both at home and in school, play a fundamental role in shaping an individual’s life trajectory. Educational experts emphasize that parents and teachers significantly influence children’s well-being, with teachers playing a particularly crucial role in shaping young minds. Since children spend a substantial amount of time in schools and afterschool learning centers, understanding the dynamics within these environments is essential. Studying teachers’ behavior management strategies offers an opportunity to foster safe, nurturing, and positive learning environments for students.

According to UNICEF (2023), nearly one billion children globally, aged 2-17, experience some form of violence, including within schools. This violence encompasses both physical and emotional abuse inflicted by teachers and school staff (Scharpf et al., 2022). Therefore, violence against children in schools is a pressing concern, as it negatively impacts children’s well-being worldwide (Durrant & Ensom, 2012 ; WHO, 2020). Addressing this issue requires urgent attention from policymakers, as well as the implementation of effective intervention strategies (End Violence Against Children, 2021).

The link between child maltreatment and violent discipline methods

What does it mean to discipline?

The term “discipline” often carries negative connotations. Derived from the Latin words discipulus (pupil) and disciplina (teaching), discipline refers to the imparting of knowledge or skills, often within the context of adherence to a specific code of conduct. In a typical classroom setting, students are expected to pay attention, follow the teacher’s instructions, complete their homework, and respect their peers, among other things.

Wilson (1982) argued that discipline and punishment are not synonymous. Similarly, Friedman and Friedman (1977) also clearly distinguished between corporal punishment and discipline. However, these terms are often mistaken or misunderstood as being the same.

Child discipline is a crucial aspect of teaching and is universally recognized as essential for teaching self-control and acceptable behavior (Gershoff, 2017). Schools are similarly expected to shape the behavior of children. However, inflicting pain through physical and psychological punishments is not an acceptable form of discipline. Such practices not only violate children’s rights but also cause significant harm to their growth and development (UNICEF, 2010 ). While debates surrounding the use of physical and psychological disciplinary practices continue, there is a growing need for actionable policies that can be effectively implemented in schools worldwide.

Numerous studies indicate that “violent disciplinary” practices are the most common form of violence against children, perpetrated by both caregivers and teachers (Krug et al., 2002). In some cases, these practices escalate into child abuse, highlighting the connection between disciplinary methods and violence. As a result, violent child discipline is recognized as a form of child maltreatment, which not only affects the child’s well-being but also carries long-term socio-economic consequences for society (Meadows et al., 2011). Thus, child discipline practices are a critical component of any education system and are also aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): Quality Education (SDG:4) and Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions (SDG:16).

Psychological punishment – why it deserves attention

While the discussion surrounding disciplinary practices often focuses on physical punishment, psychological and verbal punishment has garnered less attention in academic literature (Ferrara et al., 2019). Although this form of discipline is pervasive, it remains underreported, unrecognized, and consequently less researched in various contexts (Bellis et al., 2023; Theoklitou et al., 2012).

Examples of harsh verbal punishment or psychologically aggressive discipline include screaming, yelling, swearing at a child, or labeling them as “stupid,” “deaf,” or “lazy.” These behaviors are intended to inflict emotional distress, either actively or passively. While such actions may sometimes be unintentional, they are typically employed in an attempt to correct or manage a child’s misbehavior. The long-term emotional and psychological consequences of these practices are far-reaching, yet they remain underexplored in many studies (Wang & Kenny, 2014 ; Witt et al., 2017). Child verbal abuse is even more overlooked in the school context (Bellis et al., 2023 ; Slep et al., 2022). It is crucial to recognize that these practices also violate children’s human rights, as defined by the UNCRC, and need focus and attention from researchers and policymakers.

Consequences of violent school disciplinary practices

The effects of violent disciplinary practices are profound and far-reaching, impacting children’s growth, development, and well-being (Abbasi et al., 2015; Durrant, 2005; Greydanus et al., 2003). Research consistently shows that children who experience violence or humiliation are more likely to develop negative character traits, engage in antisocial behaviors, and struggle academically (Straus, 1994). The detrimental effects of such practices extend beyond childhood, manifesting in long-term consequences such as alcohol and substance abuse, low self-esteem, impaired cognitive abilities, poor self-regulation, and increased aggression (Gershoff, 2002).

Children who are frequently subjected to school violence are more vulnerable to bullying. In some tragic cases, children who endure humiliation and shaming from violent school disciplinary practices have been pushed to suicide, driven by the physical and psychological pain inflicted on them. Additionally, violence is often learned and passed down across generations, perpetuating a cycle of abuse (Holden et al., 2014; Straus & Field, 2003).

Key insights from literature

Through a literature review conducted as part of my Ph.D. research project, which included an international comparative analysis of violence against children with a focus on child discipline practices in schools, several key insights about violence against children in schools emerged:

Children’s voices are missing

There has been minimal attention given to understanding how children, as victims, perceive disciplinary practices in schools, and the extent to which violent punishment continues to be employed (Plan International, 2006). While physical abuse has declined in some regions, emotional abuse has increased and is often normalized as an alternative form of discipline (Dube et al., 2023).

Teacher awareness and legal compliance
Although teachers have largely moved away from corporal punishment due to legal bans, this may not be a result of increased awareness of the long-term adverse effects of corporal punishment), but rather it is more associated with the fear of legal consequences (Gershoff, 2017 , Krug et al., 2002).

The role of environment in learning
Decades of research have shown that children learn from their environment, influenced by factors such as family, school, and society (Bandura & Walters, 1963; Bandura, 2005; Baumrind, 1966). Teachers, after parents, play a critical role in shaping children’s lives. Therefore, involving all these stakeholders—parents, teachers, and children—in research studies concerning child discipline is essential for a holistic understanding and the formulation of effective policies (Hegde in Beckel et al., 2024).

Need for rigorous research
Despite the severe effects of violent disciplinary practices, there is still insufficient empirical research on the methods used in school contexts (Pinheiro, 2006 ). Additionally, there remains a lack of open dialogue between teachers, parents, and students, and a need for more methodologically sound research (WHO, 2020). The sensitive nature of this topic continues to make it a taboo subject, further hindering comprehensive study.

Prohibiting and eliminating corporal punishment is a human rights imperative; from a human rights perspective, the suggestion that children from non-European cultures should be afforded less protection than their European counterparts is of course entirely unacceptable. No culture owns corporal punishment but all have a responsibility to disown it.

End Violence Against Children

Working Paper, End Corporal Punishment, 2021

Reflections and Conclusion

As we reflect on this issue, several critical questions arise:

Are we doing enough to protect children’s rights in schools?
How effective has the abolition of corporal punishment been?
What efforts are being made to implement and enforce policies that protect children from violence at school level?
Are we doing enough towards evidence-based policy interventions that protect children by providing alternative classroom behavior management strategies, and a safe learning atmosphere?

To conclude, the use of corporal punishment and other violent disciplinary methods, including psychological abuse and aggressive verbal discipline, constitutes a violation of children’s rights. International human rights law emphasizes that children have a right to legal protection against corporal punishment in all contexts of their lives. Despite the widespread legal bans on corporal punishment, violence against children continues globally, regardless of a country’s development status (End Violence Against Children, 2021; UNCRC, 2006).

Protecting children from violence is a global responsibility, and more must be done to ensure that children’s rights are upheld in schools.

Key Messages

We need to do more to prevent violence against children in schools
There is a need to focus more on psychological punishments and effective implementation of alternative positive disciplinary practices in schools.
Providing a safe learning environment and protecting children’s rights in schools should be the priority and collective responsibility of all stakeholders.
Research should focus on studying all key stakeholders including children—to gain a holistic understanding of violence against children in the school context, since children are surrounded by various factors.
Research should be conducted globally, without being limited by the economic or arbitrary developmental status of countries because violence against children occurs across the world.

Shweta Hegde

Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany

Shweta Hegde is a PhD candidate in the Educational Psychology department at Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg.

Her research focuses on “Violence Against Children,” specifically examining child disciplinary practices in school and home contexts an international study. With decades of experience in the social sector at both national and international levels, Shweta has a deep commitment to addressing child and women’s issues. She is also a founding member of the non-profit initiative Pragyam Foundation in Bangalore, India. Her passion for education and social justice drives her research and advocacy efforts.

LinkedIn

References and Further Reading

Abbasi, M. A., Saeidi, M., Khademi, G., Hoseini, B. L., & Moghadam, Z. E. (2015). Child maltreatment in the worldwide: A review article. International Journal of Pediatrics, 3(1.1), 353–365.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269988368_Child_Maltreatment_in_the_Worldwide_A_Review_Article

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1977-25733-001

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1

Bandura, A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. G. Smith & M. A. Hitt (Eds.), Great minds in management (pp. 9-35). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://d37djvu3ytnwxt.cloudfront.net/assets/courseware/v1/e57a5dfc0367fe26ee4ff80c9433e74e/asset-v1:USMx+LDT100x+2T2017_2+type@asset+block/Bandura2005.pdf

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1963-35030-000

Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126611

Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Cresswell, K., & Ford, K. (2023). Comparing relationships between single types of adverse childhood experiences and health-related outcomes: A combined primary data study of eight cross-sectional surveys in England and Wales. BMJ Open, 13(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-072916

Dube, S. R., Li, E. T., Fiorini, G., Lin, C., Singh, N., Khamisa, K., McGowan, J., & Fonagy, P. (2023). Childhood verbal abuse as a child maltreatment subtype: A systematic review of the current evidence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 144,106394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106394

Durrant, J. E. (2005). Distinguishing physical punishment from physical abuse: Implications for professionals. Envision: The Manitoba Journal of Child Welfare, 4(1), 86-92.

Durrant, J., & Ensom, R. (2012). Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 184(12), 1373-1377. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101314

End Violence Against Children. (2021). Corporal punishment of children: Review of research on its impact and associations. September, 1-35. https://endcorporalpunishment.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Research-effects-full-working-paper-2021.pdf

Ferrara, P., Franceschini, G., Villani, A., & Corsello, G. (2019). Physical, psychological and social impact of school violence on children. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 45(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-019-0669-z

Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539-579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539

Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73(2), 31-56. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8386132/

Gershoff, E. T. (2017). School corporal punishment in global perspective: Prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22, 224-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2016.1271955

Greydanus, D. E., Pratt, H. D., Spates, C. R., Blake-Dreher, A. E., Greydanus-Gearhart, M. A., & Patel, D. R. (2003). Corporal punishment in schools: Position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(5), 385–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00042-9

Hegde, S. (2024). Violence against children: A theoretical perspective. In L. Beckel, T. Maschke & F. Stein (Eds.), BILDUNGSGERECHTIGKEIT: Transformation – Empowerment – Sustainability (pp. 267-279). Residenz Verlag.

Holden, G. W., Brown, A. S., Baldwin, A. S., & Caderao, K. C. (2014). Research findings can change attitudes about corporal punishment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(5), 902-908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.013

Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and health. The Lancet, 360(9339), 1083-1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0

Lansford, J. E., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2012). Childrearing discipline and violence in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 62-75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01676.x

Meadows, P., Tunstill, J., George, A., Dhudwar, A., & Kurtz, Z. (2011). The costs and consequences of child maltreatment: Literature review for the NSPCC. National Institute of Economic and Social Research.

Morrow, V., & Singh, R. (2014). Corporal punishment in schools in Andhra Pradesh, India: Children’s and parents’ views. Young Lives. ISBN: 978-1-909403-37-6 https://www.younglives.org.uk/sites/www.younglives.org.uk/files/YL-WP123_Morrow-and-Singh_School%20Violence.pdf

Pinheiro, P. S. (2006). World report on violence against children. Geneva: United Nations.

Plan International. (2006). Impact of corporal punishment on school children: A research study. https://www.planindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Plan-Repo-Corporal-Punishment-compressed.pdf

Scharpf, F., Kızıltepe, R., Kirika, A., & Hecker, T. (2023). A systematic review of the prevalence and correlates of emotional violence by teachers. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(4), 2581-2597. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/15248380221102559

Shawar, Y. R., & Shiffman, J. (2021). A global priority: Addressing violence against children. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 99(6), 414-421. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.19.247874

Slep, A. M. S., Glaser, D., & Manly, J. T. (2022). Psychological maltreatment: An operationalized definition and path toward application. Child Abuse & Neglect, 134, 105882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105882

Straus, M. A., & Kantor, G. K. (1994). Corporal punishment of adolescents by parents: A risk factor in the epidemiology of depression, suicide, alcohol abuse, child abuse, and wife beating. Adolescence, 29(115), 543–561. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7832020/

Straus, M. A., & Field, C. J. (2003). Psychological Aggression by American Parents: National Data on Prevalence, Chronicity, and Severity. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(4), 795–808. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00795.x

Theoklitou, D., Kabitsis, N., & Kabitsi, A. (2012). Physical and emotional abuse of primary school children by teachers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(1), 64-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.05.007

United Nations Children’s Fund (2010). Child disciplinary practices at home: evidence from a range of low- and middle-income countries. New York: UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/resources/child-disciplinary-practices-at-home-evidence-from-a-range-of-low-and-middle-income-countries/

United Nations Children’s Fund. (2017). A familiar face: Violence in the lives of children and adolescents. New York: UNICEF.

United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). (2006). General comment No. 8: The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment. Committee on the Rights of the Child, 8(8), 15.

Wang, M. T., & Kenny, S. (2014). Longitudinal links between fathers’ and mothers’ harsh verbal discipline and adolescents’ conduct problems and depressive symptoms. Child Development, 85(3), 908-923. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12143

Witt, A., Brown, R. C., Plener, P. L., et al. (2017). Child maltreatment in Germany: Prevalence rates in the general population. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry & Mental Health, 11, 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-017-0185-0

World Health Organization. (2020). Global status report on preventing violence against children 2020. WHO. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789240004191

Behind closed doors – Understanding how local politicians influence school allocation

by Daisy MacRae | NW 23 Policy Studies and Politics of Education

Every year, parents across Europe and beyond face the pivotal choice of which school is the most suitable for their children. But do they truly have as much choice as they believe? Through his exploration into the allocation of primary school places in the case of Berlin’s inner-city district, Dabisch’s (2022) European Education Research Journal article sheds light on the significant role of local politicians in shaping and executing national education policies. As the universal pursuit of educational equality remains a distant goal, these findings prompt a deeper reflection on the current complexities of educational governance and the nuanced influence of the ‘local’ in achieving educational equality on a European and global scale.

The debate surrounding school allocation

In discussions about school allocation, the concept of ‘choice’ stands as a central and contentious issue. While parental influence has been a focal point in recent media coverage (see this article by Forbes), it is essential to recognise the role of local political actors, who play a crucial part in establishing catchment areas, challenging institutional reputations, and ensuring equal educational opportunities.

Berlin’s historical legacy as a city divided into districts, each presenting unique challenges and characteristics, enriches this discussion. Since 1949, parents have had the option to choose a school outside their catchment area, a reform that has arguably heightened social segregation and competition. Navigating this complex allocation system falls on the shoulders of district elected department heads, highlighting the critical role they play in shaping educational access and outcomes.

Research findings

Dabisch’s (2022) study, based on interviews with three department heads, reveals significant differences in the implementation of federal regulations regarding primary school place allocation across Berlin’s district.

Despite a shared acknowledgement of the importance of providing sufficient primary school places within walking distance for children and improving the reputation of undersubscribed schools, contextual factors such as population size, available school places, and historical catchment areas profoundly influence decision-making (p.823). For instance, the challenges posed by high student populations in districts A and B constrained the department heads’ ability to achieve their objectives, prompting them to perceive their influence on allocation as limited (p.826).

Far from conforming to rational decision-making, department heads’ decisions and policy interpretations were heavily influenced by their political beliefs. Social-democratic heads, for example, prioritised social diversity, while the conservative head’s commitment was conditional on alignment with parental interests, reflecting broader political values and priorities (p.826).

Interestingly, the fragmented responses observed among Berlin’s district heads were linked to the absence of a unified emphasis on catchment areas within the city’s teacher unions (p.827). This lack of cohesive guidance impedes efforts to address competition and limit choice dynamics amongst parents, highlighting the need for greater coordination within local communities.

Implications beyond Berlin’s borders

What does this reveal about the direction of education policy in Europe? The last decade has witnessed a gradual shift towards ‘decentralization’, which refers to the process of granting more power to local educational authorities. Whilst this system may promote democratic choice and innovation in education, Dabisch’s (2022) findings highlight that it can also result in fragmented schooling and exacerbated disparities amongst schools, ultimately perpetuating social inequalities.

Where you go to school, and consequently school allocation processes, matter (see in this Sutton Trust Report). As decentralisation continues, mitigating these distinctions amongst schools and achieving the global aim of ensuring “inclusive and equitable quality education…for all” by 2030 (United Nations, 2018) depends more than ever on local actors to implement national policy effectively. This is especially crucial considering that it is the quality of enactment, rather than the policy itself, that is pivotal for educational improvement (Nordholm et al,2022:1).

Ultimately, these findings demonstrate the importance of finding a balance between central and local responsibilities in European educational governance when such local disparities persist. Achieving this balance is crucial for effective policy enactment, adapting to local contexts, and, most importantly, ensuring equal access to education. This should prompt education systems across Europe to ask: What is the best approach to achieve this balance?

As the UK Prime Minister, Sir Keir Starmer advocates for breaking the “class ceiling” through further decentralisation (The Labour Party, 2022:5), Berlin’s educational governance offers a glimpse into the potential future of school communities across Europe if this question isn’t comprehensively answered.

Key Messages

Local politicians significantly influence the implementation of national educational policies, affecting school catchment areas and educational success
Berlin’s historical district-based structure and school choice policies have led to increased social segregation and competition
Differences in policy implementation among district heads are shaped by contextual factors and political beliefs, causing inconsistent educational outcomes
Decentralisation in education can lead to fragmented systems and increased inequalities, highlighting the need for balanced central and local governance

Daisy MacRae

Daisy MacRae is a final year MA (Hons) Government, Policy and Society student at the University of Edinburgh.

References and Further Reading

Burgess, S., Greaves, E., &Vignoles, A. (2020). School places: A fair choice. Educational Review.
Crawford, M., Maxwell, B., Coldron, J., & Simkins, T. (2020). Local authorities as actors in the emerging “school-led” system in England. Educational Review, 1–17.
Dabisch, V. (2022). Which child to which school? How local politicians shape catchment areas, school choice and diversity. European Educational Research Journal, 22(6), 814–833.
‌Dzhurylo, A. (2019). Decentralization in education systems: European policies and practices. Education: Modern Discourses, 1, 29–37.
Morrison, N. (2024) Are Lotteries The Fairest Way To Allocate School Places? Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorrison/2024/01/10/are-lotteries-the-fairest-way-to-allocate-school-places/
‌Nordholm, D., Wermke, W., & Jarl, M. (2022). In the eye of the storm? Mapping out a story of principals’ decision-making in an era of decentralisation and re-centralisation. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 1–21.
The Labour Party: Policy Positions on Key Education Issues. (2022). https://plmr.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Labour-Party-Policy-Positions_Education_Dec2022web.pdf
United Nations. (2018). What is the goal here? Why does education matter? https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Goal-4.pdf

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