Rethinking citizenship: Global challenges and the role of education

Rethinking citizenship: Global challenges and the role of education

The paradox of universal rights and freedoms being exclusively reserved for members of a nation-state through national citizenship has led me to explore the newly emerging ideas of global citizenship and global citizenship education (GCED). While global forms of citizenship aim to transcend the particularism of national rights, the role of education in fostering these ideals is central—especially in Europe, where regional frameworks like the European Union (EU) already provide an intermediary model between national and global citizenship. Yet, these frameworks are constrained by institutional and political realities, as citizenship remains fundamentally rooted in national legal systems. This raises critical questions about the feasibility of transnational citizenship and the extent to which educational initiatives can genuinely reshape these structures.

The interplay between global and European citizenship

Few would dispute that all individuals, regardless of nationality, are entitled to fundamental rights such as life, liberty, and education (United Nations, 1948). Yet, the institutionalisation of these rights predominantly occurs at the national level (Oman, 2009, p. 280-281), creating tensions between the universality of rights and the particularism of national citizenship (Fudge, 2004, p. 32). Global citizenship is often framed as a way to overcome these limitations, yet its feasibility remains contested.

In Europe, however, the EU provides a unique context where, although citizenship is confined to a single nation-state, rights and freedoms extend across member states (The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2000). The EU’s concept of citizenship, established under the Maastricht Treaty (1992), includes rights such as free movement, the ability to work and reside in any member state, and access to supranational legal protections. While this model showcases the potential of regional cooperation, its implementation remains uneven, with significant disparities in how member states apply and enforce these rights. Persistent challenges include restrictions on labor mobility, unequal access to social welfare systems, and the treatment of migrants and asylum seekers, highlighting the complexities of balancing national sovereignty with transnational governance.

Education as a catalyst for citizenship beyond borders

Education plays a pivotal role in shaping how individuals understand and enact citizenship. As part of broader efforts to reimagine civic education, UNESCO has promoted Global Citizenship Education (GCED) to foster a sense of interconnectedness and ethical responsibility in a globalised world. Schools are increasingly seen not just as places for academic instruction, but as spaces where students learn to navigate complex global realities and develop ethical, inclusive perspectives (UNESCO, 2014).

Officially launched by the UN in 2012, GCED is a ‘framing paradigm’ that calls for ‘multifaceted,’ ‘transformative,’ and ‘lifelong’ civic learning (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). Enshrined in Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Target 4.7, it combines ‘formal and informal approaches, curricular and extracurricular interventions, and conventional and unconventional pathways to participation’ (UNESCO, 2015) with the aim of developing core competencies in learners, including:

a) Deep knowledge of global issues and universal values like justice, equality, and dignity

b) Cognitive skills for critical, systemic, and multi-perspective thinking

c) Non-cognitive skills such as empathy, conflict resolution, and cross-cultural communication

d) Behavioural capacities to act collaboratively and responsibly for the collective good (UNESCO, 2013).

However, these aspirations remain largely theoretical, as the challenge lies in bridging this vision with concrete implementation strategies that can be adapted to diverse educational systems.

Challenges and prospects in global citizenship education

Despite its potential, GCED faces notable conceptual and practical challenges. One concern is UNESCO’s “thin” conceptualisation of global citizenship, which does not fully address the role of the nation-state, the legal basis of citizenship rights, or the responsibilities that come with them. This ambiguity limits its effectiveness as a policy framework. A related challenge is its implementation. While UNESCO supports national efforts through curriculum development and learning materials, its influence remains largely advisory. Member states submit progress reports to UNESCO’s Executive Board every four years, yet the ‘Recommendation on Education for Peace and Human Rights, International Understanding, Cooperation, Fundamental Freedoms, Global Citizenship, and Sustainable Development’ (2023) remains a non-binding guidance document rather than a legally binding framework. This weakens its capacity to ensure meaningful integration across diverse national contexts.

Additionally, UNESCO’s discourse has increasingly emphasised preparing education systems for so-called ‘future’ challenges rather than addressing the structural barriers that already hinder effective responses to global issues (Mochizuki & Vickers, 2024). This shift also reflects a broader trend toward the depoliticisation of education policy discussions. As a result, UNESCO’s global citizenship agenda appears to prioritise seemingly apolitical, simplistic solutions to global challenges—an approach that not only restricts political debate but also diverts attention from socio-economic injustices and weakens civic agency (Bryan, 2022). This raises concerns about whether GCED can truly empower learners to challenge dominant global structures rather than simply adapt to them.

At the same time, global challenges such as climate change, migration, and social inequality require collective solutions, such as global citizenship education. While GCED alone cannot resolve these issues, it offers a valuable framework for fostering civic engagement and ethical responsibility across borders. However, without clearer institutional backing and mechanisms for accountability, its impact remains uneven. A crucial challenge lies in moving beyond broad rhetoric to establish sustainable pathways for integrating GCED into national education systems in ways that complement existing structures.

Towards an integrated model of citizenship education

In Europe, citizenship education already covers the EU’s institutions, functions, integration processes, and core values, fostering both awareness and a sense of belonging to the EU community (Bacian & Huemer, 2023). Expanding this framework to incorporate global citizenship could help learners develop the skills and knowledge needed to engage with increasingly interconnected social, economic, and environmental challenges. The EU itself serves as a tangible model of transnational belonging, demonstrating how rights and responsibilities can extend beyond national borders. However, meaningful transnational citizenship depends on strong institutional frameworks, legal mechanisms, and sustained political cooperation – elements that, while central to the EU model, remain unevenly developed and contested within the Union itself.

While the EU has institutionalised transnational citizenship on a regional scale, its limitations highlight the challenges of implementing GCED on a global level, such as discrepancies in the enforcement of rights, restrictions on labor mobility, and the treatment of migrants – issues that reveal the difficulty of extending citizenship beyond the nation-state.

Despite these challenges, education remains one of the most promising tools for fostering mutual understanding and preparing individuals to engage with global issues in meaningful ways. To maximise its impact, greater institutional collaboration is needed to ensure that education policies are responsive to the realities of citizenship in a globalised world. GCED has the potential to bridge national and transnational civic engagement, but this requires translating its principles into concrete policies and practices that equip learners with the tools to navigate both local and global challenges effectively. By critically assessing both the opportunities and constraints of transnational citizenship, we can move beyond theoretical discussions and work toward a more inclusive and actionable model of civic education.

Key Messages

  • There is a tension between the absolute universalism of fundamental rights and the enduring particularism of their institutionalisation through national citizenship.
  • With state institutions serving as the primary mechanisms for exercising rights and freedoms, human rights are intrinsically linked to national citizenship.
  • Global Citizenship Education (GCE), envisioned as a means to foster universal values, is proposed as a potential solution to this tension.
  • GCE encourages us to reimagine education as a lifelong process that nurtures a sense of belonging not only to a nation but also to a global community.
Dr. Aikerim Bektemirova

Dr. Aikerim Bektemirova

Aikerim Bektemirova recently completed her PhD in Education at the University of Cambridge. Her primary research interests lie at the intersection of education and political sociology. Prior to her PhD, Aikerim earned an MPhil in Education, Globalisation, and International Development, also from the University of Cambridge. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science and International Relations from Nazarbayev University in Astana, Kazakhstan.

Other blog posts on similar topics:

References and Further Reading

Appiah, K. (2007). Global Citizenship. Fordham L. Review, 75(5), 2375. Available at: https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol75/iss5/3/

Bacian, I. &Huemer, M. (2023). Citizenship education in national curricula. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2023)747459

Bosniak, L. (2000). Citizenship Denationalized. SSRN Electronic Journal, 7, 447. Available at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol7/iss2/2/

Bryan, A. (2022). From ‘the conscience of humanity’ to the conscious human brain: UNESCO’s embrace of social-emotional learning as a flag of convenience. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education54(5), 770–784. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2022.2129956

European Parliament. (2000). The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf

European Parliament. (1992). Treaty on European Union (TEU) / Maastricht Treaty. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/maastricht-treaty

Frey, B. (2001). Flexible Citizenship for a Global Society. SSRN Electronic Journal.Available at:  https://www.bsfrey.ch/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/flexible-citizenship-for-a-global-society.pdf

Fudge, J. (2014). Making claims for migrant workers: human rights and citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 18(1), 29-45. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13621025.2014.865894

Gholami, R. (2016). The art of self-making: identity and citizenship education in late-modernity. British Journal Of Sociology Of Education, 38(6), 798-811. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2016.1182006

Hansen, R. (2014). Citizenship and Integration in Europe. In Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States (1st ed., pp. 87-109). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305246077_Citizenship_and_Integration_in_Europe

Koh, H. H. (1999). How Is International Human Rights Law Enforced? Indiana Law Journal, 74(4), 9th ser., 1397-1417. Available at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2279&context=ilj

Nash, K. (2009). Between Citizenship and Human Rights. Sociology, 43(6), 1067-1083. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038509345702

Mochizuki, Y., & Vickers, E. (2024). Still ‘the conscience of humanity’? UNESCO’s vision of education for peace, sustainable development and global citizenship. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education54(5), 721–730. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2024.2371259

Oman, N. (2010). Hannah Arendt’s Right to Have Rights”: A Philosophical Context for Human Security. Journal of Human Rights, 9(3), 279-302. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3394297

UNESCO. (2013). Outcome document of the Technical Consultation on Global Citizenship Education: Global Citizenship Education – An Emerging Perspective. Available at:https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000224115

UNESCO. (2014). Global Citizenship Education. Preparing learners for the challenges of the twenty-first century.Paris: UNESCO. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000227729

UNESCO. (2015). Global Citizenship Education. Topics and Learning Objectives. Paris: UNESCO. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232993

UNESCO. (2023). Recommendation on Education for Peace and Human Rights, International Understanding, Cooperation, Fundamental Freedoms, Global Citizenship and Sustainable Development. Paris: UNESCO. Available at :https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/recommendation-education-peace-and-human-rights-international-understanding-cooperation-fundamental

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Available at:https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights

 

Networking for Global and Sustainability Education – UNESCO ASPnet in Estonia

Networking for Global and Sustainability Education – UNESCO ASPnet in Estonia

UNESCO is tasked to ensure that education serves the values of peace, human rights, freedom, justice and democracy, respect for diversity, and international solidarity as defined in the UN Charter and the Constitution of UNESCO. Since 1953, the organisation has offered schools in its member states the opportunity to apply to be part of the UNESCO Associated Schools Network (ASPnet), which supports the promotion of the UNESCO ideals. Today, the ASPnet connects more than 11,500 schools in 182 countries, and the current strategy aim for the network is to support Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Global Citizenship Education (GCED). These are seen as the key instruments for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Target 4.7 with the aim of giving all learners the knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development (UNESCO, 2014).

The ASPnet has, throughout its existence, aimed to strengthen the horizontal links between schools through twinning and flagship projects which support the diffusion of participatory and critical enquiry pedagogies (Schweisfurth, 2005). The Baltic Sea Project (BSP) is one of the oldest flagship projects. Since 1989, it has united schools in the countries bordering the Baltic Sea to tackle regional environmental problems through education. Currently, in the nine participating countries, over 165 schools (mainly upper-secondary level) are involved in the BSP activities (BSP, 2022).

My research deals with the history and current state of these school networks in the context of Estonia and analyses how the process of tighter integration of the BSP network into the UNESCO ASPnet contributes to achieving a more holistic understanding of a sustainable future through enhanced cooperation between different subject teachers and civil society organisations (CSOs).

Revitalising the school network

The process of revitalising the school networks started in 2014, when the Estonian UNESCO National Commission gave the task of coordinating the networks to two separate CSOs that both work as resource centres for schools and teachers: the Tartu Environment Education Centre (TEEC) started coordinating the BSP network while NGO Mondo’s Global Education Centre restarted the UNESCO ASPnet. Both centres are highly valued actors in their respective fields in Estonia.

The integration process of the networks started in 2018 with first the CSOs coming together – the coordinator from TEEC took part in Mondo’s Global Education training with some key teachers from the BSP network and the integration proceeded with joint planning, events and new guidelines for schools. According to the renewed guidelines, all ASPnet schools are encouraged to include global and sustainability education into school development plans, school regulations, management style, and community participation. They are required to do a minimum of one international UNESCO project/campaign/program and two UN thematic days yearly.

ASPnet schools are also expected to mainstream ESD and GCED to curriculum, working plans and lessons and support cooperation between teachers. As a follow-up activity to strategy renewal, all BSP schools were awarded ASPnet membership.

Analysis of the ASP Network in Estonia

The main aim of my study was to analyse the institutional and ideational context of ESD, GCED and ASPnet in Estonia, questioning whether networking can support a more holistic, critical, and transformative GCED and ESD – dimensions which are seen as crucial in the academic literature (Bamber, 2019). I used mixed methods to gather data from the ASPnet teachers and Estonian education policymakers and experts.

A survey questionnaire was completed by 24 teachers in the network, and 20 teachers took part in a participatory workshop during the ASPnet Annual Conference. In addition, ten teachers, five policymakers and five experts and coordinators were interviewed online. A review of annual reports from schools, previous studies, and policy documents was also conducted.

Identifying silos 

The survey data, interviews and workshop conducted with the ASPnet teachers showed some silos between different subject teachers. While teachers of natural sciences (chemistry, physics, biology) linked global competence to environmental awareness, teachers of social sciences (civics, history, geography) and languages linked it to intercultural competence. While all teachers saw the need to encourage students’ critical thinking, social science teachers saw more value in introducing controversial topics to discussions as well as critical examination of topics such as capitalism, colonialism, and nationalism.

Silos also exist in an institutional context where different ministries support various aspects of Target 4.7: the Ministry of Environment supports environmental education and ESD while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs gives funding for GCED activities. At the same time, the joining of the networks and increased collaboration between different subject teachers has been useful in breaking down the silos and increasing cooperation. However, there is room for improvement in ASPnet at all levels, from the school to national and international levels. Activities often end up being one-off events without a profound impact on the school as a whole. Communication problems and lack of resources also hinder UNESCO ASPnet from reaching full capacity.

Opportunities and challenges

Since the restart of the network, several new educational institutions have applied to join the Estonian ASPnet (including pre-schools, primary schools, and secondary schools), which could be seen as a positive result of the new, more inclusive approach. At the beginning of 2022, the Estonian ASPnet included 60 educational institutions (7-8% of all schools in Estonia). Many schools have joined after their teachers participated in Mondo’s in-service training in GCED.

Being a member of ASPnet is seen to give prestige and legitimacy to the schools (especially in situations where schools need to compete for students), as well as more resources to work on global and sustainability education. The network coordinators motivate teachers to be active by offering recognition, awards and opportunities for student participation and their resources are appreciated by the participating teachers.

Looking at the overall context of GCED and ESD in Estonia, we can see both opportunities and challenges for the promotion of UNESCO values. The main challenges are related to the overall policy discourse, which emphasises neoliberal, nationalistic and security discourses with limited reference to global solidarity. Emphasis is on subjects tested in high-stakes exams and PISA. At the same time, the autonomy of schools and teachers gives opportunities to place more emphasis on ESD and GCED in schools where teachers are trained, resourced, and motivated. The curriculum encourages including these themes in a transversal manner, which supports the activities of ASPnet. Openness and expertise in digital learning are also assets (GENE, 2019).

The study concludes that the ideas around holistic, critical, and transformative dimensions of GCED present in academic literature need contextualising. The decolonisation discourse is becoming more prevalent in academic GCED literature, where it refers predominantly to Global North vs Global South relations, while ignoring the post-Soviet experience.

When asked about criticality, one of the Estonian teachers noted that:

“in school, we should talk more about colonialism as we were ourselves colonized only recently, but we should not be too critical of nationalism as we need to protect our minority language and culture”.

This shows how concepts like ‘colonialism’ and ‘nationalism’ can have different meanings and connotations in different contexts. The ‘west’ in this context is not a symbol of past and current injustices, but a symbol of democracy and human rights as opposed to Soviet and Russian authoritarianism and chauvinism.

 One of the biggest current challenges for the Estonian education sector is the war in Ukraine, the integration of Ukrainian refugees into Estonian schools*, continuing integration of the Russian-speaking minority into Estonian society, as well as fighting propaganda and hate speech. In this situation, GCED can have a key role to play in supporting peace, global solidarity, and human rights, but special emphasis needs to be put on critical media literacy.

 

* By the end of May 2022, Estonia received more than 40 000 refugees from Estonia (3% of the Estonian population), and thousands of refugee children need access to education in Estonia.

Key Messages

UNESCO school network in Estonia motivates a growing number of schools to work on global and sustainability issues

There are silos between natural and social science teachers as well as different ministries in their understanding and promotion of Global Citizenship Education (GCED) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

Networking between different subject teachers can lead to more holistic approach to teaching global challenges

Critical theory needs to be contextualised in the local history and experience

Other blog posts on similar topics:

Johanna Helin

Johanna Helin

EdD candidate at OISE (University of Toronto)

Johanna Helin is an EdD candidate at OISE (University of Toronto) and carries out studies and evaluations through UbuntuEDU in Finland. She has many years of experience in Global Citizenship Education from Finland, Estonia and Canada. Her dissertation research is on global citizenship education and critical media literacy in selected ASPnet schools in different country contexts.

References and Further Reading

Baltic Sea Project website (accessed June 10, 2022): https://unesco-bsp.blogspot.com/ 

Bamber, P. (Ed.). (2019). Teacher Education for Sustainable Development and Global https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9780429427053/teacher-education-sustainable-development-global-citizenship-philip-bamber 

Citizenship: Critical Perspectives on Values, Curriculum and Assessment (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi-org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.4324/9780429427053

 GENE – Global Education Network Europe (2019). The European Global Education Peer Review Process – National Report on Global Education in Estonia. Available at: https://www.gene.eu/peer-reviews

Schweisfurth, M. (2005). Learning to Live Together: A Review of UNESCO’s Associated Schools Project Network. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, Vol. 51 Issue 2/3, p. 219-234. DOI: 10.1007/s11159-005-3579-9 https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/learning-to-live-together-a-review-of-unescos-associated-schools- 

UNESCO (2003). UNESCO Associated School Project Network (ASPnet): historical review 1953-2003. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000130509?6=null&queryId=4f483e5c-0778-470e-9a63-5aaac01f9c13 

 UNESCO (2014b). ASPnet strategy for 2014-2021, Global network of schools addressing global challenges: building global citizenship and promoting sustainable development.Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000231049?14=null&queryId=d968d1b3-3718-42c0-a1ea-8835499d4ccc 

 UNESCO (2018b). UNESCO Associated Schools Network: guide for national coordinators. UNESCO: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261994

 UNESCO (2019a) UNESCO Associated Schools Network: guide for members. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707?4=null&queryId=3021db41-accf-4546-bf3f-12e6441595a9